Is Ketamine a controlled substance?

Yes — Ketamine is a controlled substance under US federal law.

What is the constant rate infusion (CRI) dose for Ketamine?

Ketamine has 2 CRI dose rules in the ExoticRx formulary, covering Dog (Domestic), Cat (Domestic). See the CRI section on this page for routes, dose ranges, and source citations.

Ketamine

US brand names:Ketaset, Vetalar

Calculate dosage

Sourced from published veterinary references. Awaiting credentialed clinical reviewer — our editorial process.

Ketamine is dosed at 10–35 mg/kg IM once in rabbits, per GillettCS. Selected drug dosages and clinical reference data. In: Manning PJ, Ringler DH, Newcomer CE, eds. The Biology of the Laboratory Rabbit, 2nd ed., Academic Press, San Diego, CA; 1994:467-472. — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 10.4 (Chemical Restraint/Sedative/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Rabbits.a,b). Verify against current literature before clinical use.

Drug Class

Anesthetic

Routes

IVIM

Indications

Anaesthesia - COMBINATION ONLYanalgesia adjunctAnesthesiaanesthesia induction Anesthesia induction (DKM protocol)Anesthetic induction Anesthetic induction (with sedative)Chemical restraintChemical restraint 30-60 minCRIfacilitates endotracheal intubationFeral cat trap-neuter-return (TNR)

Show all 33

Field sedation Induction of general anesthesiaInjectable anaesthesia (with dexmedetomidine)Injectable general anaesthesia (with xylazine)Light anaesthesia (with dexmedetomidine 0.1 mg/kg)Light to heavy sedationmust be co-administeredPre-medication (with midazolam)preanaestheticPremedicationReduce breath-holding during chamber inductionReduces breath-holding during isoflurane chamber inductionRefractory status epilepticusRestraintsedation Sedation (light to heavy)Sedation and immobilization Sedation/anaesthesia Sedation/restraint

Mechanism of Action

NMDA receptor antagonist producing dissociative anesthesia. Provides somatic analgesia, amnesia, and catalepsy while maintaining pharyngeal reflexes.

Side effects & warnings

Increases intracranial and intraocular pressure. Causes increased salivation (premedicate with anticholinergic). Eyes remain open under anesthesia — use lubricant. Do NOT use alone in dogs/cats (muscle rigidity) — combine with a sedative.

Species with Ketamine dosing data (53 dose rules)

African Grey Parrot Ball Python Bearded Dragon Blue-and-Gold Macaw Blue-tongue Skink Cat (Domestic)Cattle (Beef/Dairy)Chinchilla Crested Gecko Dog (Domestic)Dwarf Hamster Eastern Box Turtle Ferret Gerbil Goat (Caprine)

Controlled Substance

Controlled substance in the US

Controlled-drug status and schedules differ by country — check your local scheduling rules.

Evidence levels across 53 dose rules

Weak×22Strong×9Moderate×21Anecdotal×1

Each ExoticRx dose rule is graded by the strength of its primary evidence — see the editorial process.

Constant rate infusion (CRI)

Ketamine CRI dose rules from the ExoticRx formulary. Verify against current literature before clinical use; CRI rates differ from bolus dosing and route, dilution, and monitoring matter. Sign in for the complete per-species CRI protocol set.

Species	Route	Rate	Indication	Evidence	Source
Dog (Domestic)	IV	0.1–0.5 mg/kg/hper hour (CRI)	CRI for somatic analgesia	Moderate	Lamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.
Cat (Domestic)	IV	0.1–0.5 mg/kg/hper hour (CRI)	CRI for somatic analgesia	Moderate	Lamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

Sample dosing (2 of 53 cited rules)

A dog/cat sample is shown here. Cited dosing for all 32 species — reptiles, birds, pocket pets, livestock, and equine — is free on the per-species pages above. Pro adds the weight-based calculator for every species.

Species	Route	Dose	Frequency	Evidence	Source
Dog (Domestic)	IV	0.1–0.5 mg/kg/h	per hour (CRI)	Moderate	Lamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.
Cat (Domestic)	IV	0.1–0.5 mg/kg/h	per hour (CRI)	Moderate	Lamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

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Backed by 45 published sourcesShow

· 130. Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.784
· 130. Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.784 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.3 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents).
· 18. Fink DM, Doss GA, Sladky KK, et al. Effect of injection site on dexmedetomidine-ketamine induced sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 2017;in press. — Source: Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd Ed, p.550
· 233. Doneley B. Avian Medicine and Surgery in Practice: Companion and Aviary Birds, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; 2016. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.451 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.5 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Sedative/Analgesic Agents Used in Birds.a,b).

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Other formulations of Ketamine

Calculate Dosage for Ketamine

Short-duration anesthesia

Dog (Domestic)IV
0.1–0.5 mg/kg/hper hour (CRI)
CRI for somatic analgesia
ModerateLamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.
Cat (Domestic)IV
0.1–0.5 mg/kg/hper hour (CRI)
CRI for somatic analgesia
ModerateLamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· 33. Boyer TH. Clinical anesthesia of reptiles. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1992;2:10-13. | 154. Johnson JH. Anesthesia, analgesia, and euthanasia of reptiles and amphibians. Proc Annu Conf Am Assoc Zoo Vet. 1991;132-138. — Source: Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd Ed, p.1410

· 33. Boyer TH. Clinical anesthesia of reptiles. Bull Assoc Rept Amph Vet. 1992;2:10-13. — Source: Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd Ed, p.1410

· 330. Mitchell M. Ophidia. In: Fowler ME, Miller RE, eds. Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine, 5th ed., Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA; 2003:82-91. | 331. Mitchell MA. Therapeutics. In: Mader DR, eds. Reptile Medicine and Surgery, 2nd ed., Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2006:631-664. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.242 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.5 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Reptiles.a).

· Abrahamsen EJ. Equine Field Anesthesia I. Presented at: Western Veterinary Conference; 2007. doi:10.1016/b978-1-4160-0270-3.50008-7 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· BSAVA Small Animal Formulary, 10th ed., Part A: Canine and Feline (ed. Allerton), Ketamine, printed p.218 — "Dogs: Induction of anaesthesia (combined with diazepam or midazolam) as part of a volatile […]" — plus Plumb's 10th ed. printed p.720 for 5 mg/kg IV (refractory status epilepticus bolus) and 5.5 mg/kg IV with diazepam. Plumb's ref 51 = Roynard P, Bilderback A, Dewey CW. Intravenous Ketamine Bolus(es) for the Treatment of Status Epilepticus, Refractory Status Epilepticus, and Cluster Seizures: A Retrospective Study of 15 Dogs. Front Vet Sci. 2021.

· Beecy S, Meuse D, Kizielewicz N, Beale C, Molk D. Optimization of Ketamine/Xylazine Anesthesia in Geriatric Mice. J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2025;64(4):778-787. doi:10.30802/AALAS-JAALAS-25-010. PMID 40683626. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12530262/

· Browning GR, Eshar D, Beaufrère H. Comparison of dexmedetomidine-ketamine-midazolam and isoflurane for anesthesia of black-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2019;58:50-57. doi:10.30802/aalas-jaalas-18-000001 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.3 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents). — CORROBORATED 2026-08-06 by independent literature: Comparison of the effects of a dexmedetomidine-ketamine-midazolam anesthetic protocol versus isoflurane inhalation anesthesia on echocardiography variables and plasma cardiac tropo (American journal of veterinary research, 2019). doi:10.2460/ajvr.80.12.1114. https://doi.org/10.2460/ajvr.80.12.1114. The paper reports this drug at this dose in this species: "xually intact male captive BTPDs. Procedures Each BTPD was randomly assigned to be anesthetized by […]". This is a second source alongside the book already cited; it corroborates the figure and does not by itself establish that the dose is correct.

· Carpenter 6e | Corroborated 2026-07-30: Van Pelt LF. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1977;171(9):842-844. PMID:924855 — rat (Rattus norvegicus), ketamine 87 mg/kg IM with xylazine 13 mg/kg (abstract).

· Carpenter JW, Klaphake E, Gibbons PM, et al. Reptile formulary. In: Divers SJ, Stahl SJ, eds. Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2019:1191-1211.

· Carpenter JW, Klaphake E, Gibbons PM, et al. Reptile formulary. In: Divers SJ, Stahl SJ, eds. Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2019:1191-1211. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.241 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.7 (Preferred Injectable Sedation Protocols Used in Select Reptiles.301,400,430).

· Carpenter JW, Klaphake E, Gibbons PM, et al. Reptile formulary. In: Divers SJ, Stahl SJ, eds. Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2019:1191-1211. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.242 - Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.5 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Reptiles).

· Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed | Corroborated 2026-07-30: Luca GC et al. Vet Anaesth Analg 2020;47(3):334-340. doi:10.1016/j.vaa.2020.02.002 PMID:32222343 — rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), ketamine 5 mg/kg IV over 5 min (abstract).

· Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.3 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents).

· Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th ed, Table 5.5. NOTE: the served figure was matched against the table as a whole, not against this drug's own row, so confirm the number on the page before relying on it.

· Cruz JI, Loste JM, Burzaco OH. Observations on the use of medetomidine/ketamine and its reversal with atipamezole for chemical restraint in the mouse. Lab Anim. 1998;32:18-22. doi:10.1258/002367798780559383 — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.3 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents), ref 32.

· D'Urso ES, Martorelli M, Bersanetti G, Selleri P, De Gennaro C. Combination of Dexmedetomidine and Low-Dose Ketamine in 4 Sugar Gliders (Petaurus breviceps) Undergoing Elective Castration. Vet Sci. 2025 Jul 25;12(8):699. doi:10.3390/vetsci12080699. PMID: 40872650. URL: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12390597/

· Doneley B. Avian Medicine and Surgery in Practice: Companion and Aviary Birds, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; 2016. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.451 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.5 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic/Sedative/Analgesic Agents Used in Birds.a,b).

· Doneley B. Avian Medicine and Surgery in Practice: Companion and Aviary Birds, 2nd ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL; 2016.; Hawkins MG, Barron H, Speer BL, et al. Birds. In: Carpenter JW, eds. Exotic Animal Formulary, 4th ed., Elsevier Saunders, St. Louis, MO; 2013:183-437.

· Faulkner JE, Archambault A. Anesthesia and surgery in the green iguana. Semin Avian Exot Pet Med. 1993;2:103-108. — Source: Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd Ed, p.1410

· Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery (Quesenberry et al.), Appendix Formulary Table A.4, printed p.627

· Fox L, Snyder LB, Mans C. Comparison of Dexmedetomidine-Ketamine with Isoflurane for Anesthesia of Chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera). J Am Assoc Lab Anim Sci. 2016;55(3):312-316. PMID 27177565. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4865693/

· GillettCS. Selected drug dosages and clinical reference data. In: Manning PJ, Ringler DH, Newcomer CE, eds. The Biology of the Laboratory Rabbit, 2nd ed., Academic Press, San Diego, CA; 1994:467-472. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-469235-0.50028-2 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 10.4 (Chemical Restraint/Sedative/Anesthetic/Analgesic Agents Used in Rabbits.a,b).

· Heniff AC, Petritz OA, Carpenter RG, Lewbart GA, Balko JA. Anesthetic efficacy of dexmedetomidine-ketamine in eastern box turtles (Terrapene carolina carolina) is enhanced with the addition of midazolam and when administered in the forelimb versus the hindlimb. Am J Vet Res. 2024;85(2):ajvr.23.10.0226. doi:10.2460/ajvr.23.10.0226 https://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/38039626

· Holz P, Holz RM. Evaluation of ketamine, ketamine/xylazine, and ketamine/midazolam anesthesia in red-eared sliders (Trachemys scripta elegans). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1994;25:531-537. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.242 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.5 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Reptiles.a).

· Lamont LA. Adjunctive analgesic therapy in veterinary medicine. Vet Clin North Am Small Animal Pract. 2008;38(6):1187-1203, v. doi:10.1016/j.cvsm.2008.06.002 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· Mitchell MA. Therapeutics. In: Mader DR, eds. Reptile Medicine and Surgery, 2nd ed., Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2006:631-664. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.242 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.5 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Reptiles.a).

· Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW, et al. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, OrcuttCJ, Mans C, et al. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630.; Ness RD, Johnson-Delaney C. Sugar gliders. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 3rd ed., Saunders/Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2012:393-410.

· Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630. — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.3 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents).

· Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.784 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.3 (Chemical Restraint/Anesthetic Agents Used in Rodents).

· Papich Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 5th Ed, printed p.429, Ketamine Hydrochloride, Large Animal Dosage — EDITION CORRECTED 2026-08-07: this citation named the 5th edition, which is not held. The page locator resolves in the 4th ed (2016), the copy actually consulted, and that page names the drug; the reference is to the 4th.

· Papich MG. Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 4th ed (2016; held) — Ketamine Hydrochloride, Large Animal Dosage, printed p.429: "Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine • 2 mg/kg IV (in horses, pretreat with a sedative)." Same monograph, Indications and Clinical Uses, printed p.428: "Ketamine is used for short-term anesthetic procedures. Duration of action is generally 30 minutes or less." Papich prints the lower bound of the served range only. The full 2 to 4 mg/kg IV range is printed for sheep in Linder HF, Prybylski EG, Loman BR, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, Garrett EF, McCann JC. The effects of induced hindgut acidosis in sheep on rumen fermentation and gut permeability. J Anim Sci. 2025;103:skaf289. doi:10.1093/jas/skaf289, PMID 40873130 — open access, full text read: "Animals were anesthetized with a combination of midazolam (0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg IV) and ketamine (2 to […]" That is an induction protocol administered to sheep in a research surgery, not a formulary recommendation. Abrahamsen EJ. Chemical restraint and injectable anesthesia of ruminants. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract. 2013;29(1):209-227. doi:10.1016/j.cvfa.2012.11.005, PMID 23438406 — paywalled; only the abstract could be read, and it states no dose.

· Papich MG. Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 4th ed, printed p.429, Ketamine, Small Animal Dosage > Cats: '2-25 mg/kg IV or IM. (Generally, the lower dose range is given IV compared to IM.)' - replace the Plumb's 10th ed p.717 anchor, which does not carry this row.

· Papich, Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, 4th Ed (2016), printed p.429 (PDF p.457), Small Animal Dosage > Cats

· Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th ed (2023) — Ketamine, SWINE, Injectable anesthesia (extra-label), item a; printed p.723 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.723, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th ed (2023) — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· Quesenberry et al., Ferrets, Rabbits and Rodents, 4th Ed, p.340

· Rings D. Anesthesia and Surgical Procedures for Small Ruminants I & II. Presented at: Western Veterinary Conference; 2005. Distributed by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. PMID: 2983894 — Plumb's 10th ed printed p.717, Ketamine monograph spanning p.717-724.

· Turner RC, Gatson BJ, Hernandez JA, Alexander AB, Aitken-Palmer C, Vigani A, Heard DJ. Sedation and anesthesia of Galapagos (Chelonoidis nigra), Aldabra (Aldabrachelys gigantea), and African spurred tortoises (Centrochelys sulcata): a retrospective review (2009-2019). Animals (Basel). 2021;11(10):2920. doi:10.3390/ani11102920 https://europepmc.org/article/MED/34679940