Sourced from published veterinary references. Awaiting credentialed clinical reviewer — our editorial process.
Ketoconazole is dosed at 25 mg/kg PO q24h in ball pythons, per Jacobson ER. Antimicrobial drug use in reptiles. In: Prescott JF, Baggot JD, eds. Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA; 1993:543-552. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.222 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.3 (Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929. Verify against current literature before clinical use.
Inhibits lanosterol 14-alpha-demethylase (CYP51), blocking ergosterol synthesis in fungal membranes. At high doses, inhibits adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis.
Side effects & warnings
Hepatotoxic — monitor liver enzymes. Strong CYP inhibitor (many drug interactions). Requires gastric acid for absorption (do not give with antacids). Also used for Cushing's disease (adrenal steroidogenesis inhibition).
Species with Ketoconazole dosing data (35 dose rules)
Each ExoticRx dose rule is graded by the strength of its primary evidence — see the editorial process.
Backed by 25 published sources
· 130. Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.772 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.1 (Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Rodents.a). Located 2026-08-05: the only table covering this species in which the drug's own row prints this dose. The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929; Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery — ISBN 9780323484350, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323484350
· 149. Jepson L. Lizards. Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier; 2009:268-314. | 150. Jepson L. Snakes. Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier; 2009:315-357. | 151. Jepson L. Turtles and tortoises. Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide. Philadelphia: Saunders/Elsevier; 2009:358-411. — Source: Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, 3rd Ed, p.1405 — SOURCE EDITION: Mader's Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery (Divers & Stahl) — ISBN 9780323482530,
Sample dosing (2 of 35 cited rules)
A dog/cat sample is shown here. Cited dosing for all 33 species — reptiles, birds, pocket pets, livestock, and equine — is free on the per-species pages above. Pro adds the weight-based calculator for every species.
Hillier A. Why are these nails falling off? Claw diseases of the dog. Presented at: Atlantic Coast Vet Conference (ACVC); 2015. — Verified against Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th Ed, p.755 (2026-08-01). — Plumb's 10th ed (held) printed p.725, Ketoconazole, Systemic monograph spanning p.725-728; page located 2026-08-05 from the book's own running heads, verified to name the drug in its body text. — SOURCE EDITION: Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — ISBN 9781394172207, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9781394172207
Medleau L, Greene CE, Rakich PM. Evaluation of ketoconazole and itraconazole for treatment of disseminated cryptococcosis in cats. Am J Vet Res. 1990;51(9):1454-1458. doi:10.2460/ajvr.1990.51.09.1454 — Verified against Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th Ed, p.755 (2026-08-01). — Plumb's 10th ed (held) printed p.725, Ketoconazole, Systemic monograph spanning p.725-728; page located 2026-08-05 from the book's own running heads, verified to name the drug in its body text. — SOURCE EDITION: Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — ISBN 9781394172207,
Upgrade to Pro or Student to unlock the full dose ranges and frequency for every species. The drug's mechanism, warnings, indications, and cited sources are free to read.
· 177. Coles BH. Prescribing for exotic birds. In: Bishop Y, eds. The Veterinary Formulary, 5th ed., Pharmaceutical Press, London, UK; 2001:99-105. | 490. Kollias GV Jr., Palgut J, Rossi J, et al. The use of ketoconazole in birds: preliminary pharmacokinetics and clinical applications. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet; 1986:103. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.426 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· 177. Coles BH. Prescribing for exotic birds. In: Bishop Y, eds. The Veterinary Formulary, 5th ed., Pharmaceutical Press, London, UK; 2001:99-105. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.426 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· 47. Marshall KL. Fungal diseases in small mammals: therapeutic trends and zoonotic considerations. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract. 2003;6(2):415-427. | 68. Smith A. General husbandry and medical care of hedgehogs. In: Bonagura JD, eds. Kirk's Current Veterinary Therapy XIII: Small Animal Practice; WB Saunders, Philadelphia, PA; 2000:1128-1133. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.735 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 8.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Hedgehogs). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· 490. Kollias GV Jr., Palgut J, Rossi J, et al. The use of ketoconazole in birds: preliminary pharmacokinetics and clinical applications. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet; 1986:103. | 177. Coles BH. Prescribing for exotic birds. In: Bishop Y, eds. The Veterinary Formulary, 5th ed., Pharmaceutical Press, London, UK; 2001:99-105. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.426 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· 490. Kollias GV Jr., Palgut J, Rossi J, et al. The use of ketoconazole in birds: preliminary pharmacokinetics and clinical applications. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet; 1986:103. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.426 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· 665. Orosz SE, Frazier DL. Antifungal agents: a review of their pharmacology and therapeutic indications. J Avian Med Surg. 1995;9:8-18. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.426 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Bauck L, Brash M. Survey of diseases of the Lady Gouldian finch. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet; 1999:204-212. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.427 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Fehr M. Zoonotic potential of dermatophytosis in small mammals. J Exot Pet Med. 2015;24:308-316. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.847 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 10.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Rabbits.a). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Hillier A. Why are these nails falling off? Claw diseases of the dog. Presented at: Atlantic Coast Vet Conference (ACVC); 2015. — Verified against Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th Ed, p.755 (2026-08-01). — Plumb's 10th ed (held) printed p.725, Ketoconazole, Systemic monograph spanning p.725-728; page located 2026-08-05 from the book's own running heads, verified to name the drug in its body text. — SOURCE EDITION: Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — ISBN 9781394172207, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9781394172207
· Jacobson ER. Antimicrobial drug use in reptiles. In: Prescott JF, Baggot JD, eds. Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA; 1993:543-552. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.222 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.3 (Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Jacobson ER. Antimicrobial drug use in reptiles. In: PrescottJF, Baggot JD, eds. Antimicrobial Therapy in Veterinary Medicine; Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA; 1993:543-552. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.222 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.3 (Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Jepson L. Snakes. Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide, Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA; 2009:315-357. | Jepson L. Turtles and tortoises. In: Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide, Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA; 2009:358-411. | Klaphake E, Gibbons PM, Sladky KK, et al. Reptiles. In: Carpenter JW, eds. Exotic Animal Formulary, 5th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2018:81-166. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.222 — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Jepson L. Turtles and tortoises. In: Exotic Animal Medicine: A Quick Reference Guide, Saunders/Elsevier, Philadelphia, PA; 2009:358-411. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.222 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.3 (Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Medleau L, Greene CE, Rakich PM. Evaluation of ketoconazole and itraconazole for treatment of disseminated cryptococcosis in cats. Am J Vet Res. 1990;51(9):1454-1458. doi:10.2460/ajvr.1990.51.09.1454 — Verified against Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th Ed, p.755 (2026-08-01). — Plumb's 10th ed (held) printed p.725, Ketoconazole, Systemic monograph spanning p.725-728; page located 2026-08-05 from the book's own running heads, verified to name the drug in its body text. — SOURCE EDITION: Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — ISBN 9781394172207, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9781394172207
· Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW. Formulary. In: Quesenberry KE, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO; 2021:620-630. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.772 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 9.1 (Antimicrobial and Antifungal Agents Used in Rodents.a). Located 2026-08-05: the only table covering this species in which the drug's own row prints this dose. The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929; Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery — ISBN 9780323484350, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323484350
· Page CD, Mautino M, Derendorf H, et al. Multiple dose pharmacokinetics of ketoconazole administered orally to gopher tortoises (Gopherus polyphemus). J Zoo Wildl Med. 1991;22:191-198. — Verified against Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.222 (2026-08-01). — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 4.3 (Antifungal Agents Used in Reptiles). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Papich MG. Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs, Ketoconazole, Small Animal Dosage, Cats, printed p.431 - "5-10 mg/kg q8-12h PO." CAVEAT FROM THE OTHER HELD BOOK - Plumb's 10th ed printed p.728 CATS states "Use is controversial, and some clinicians recommend against using ketoconazole in cats because of […]", and printed p.726 "anorexia, weight loss, and hepatotoxic effects are possible".
· Phalen DN. Common bacterial and fungal infectious diseases in pet birds. Suppl Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet. 2003;25:43-48. — Source: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary, 6th Ed, p.426 — Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds). The copy held is an ebook conversion with no printed page numbers, so the table — not the page — is the citable location. — SOURCE EDITION: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary — ISBN 9780323833929, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9780323833929
· Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, Ketoconazole (Systemic), REPTILES section, corpus p.755 (printed 728) — LOCATOR CONVENTION 2026-08-07: the bare 'p.755' in this citation is the PDF index of the held scan, not the printed page. The PRINTED page is p.728; verified by finding the drug named there. If you are holding the book, turn to p.728. — SOURCE EDITION: Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — ISBN 9781394172207, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9781394172207
· Quesenberry KE, Orcutt CJ, Mans C, Carpenter JW, eds. Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents: Clinical Medicine and Surgery, 4th ed., Elsevier, St. Louis, MO, 2021, Appendix: Formulary (Morrisey JK, Carpenter JW), Table A.2 'Antifungal Agents Used in Small Mammals', Ferrets column, printed p.623: 'Ketoconazole 10-30 mg/kg PO q12-24h' - the range served. NOTE: Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed Table 11.2 and its ref 71 (Lewington 2000) both print a HIGHER ceiling, 10-50 mg/kg PO q12-24h. The served 30 mg/kg ceiling is the lower of two disagreeing sources.
· Rosskopf WJ, Woerpel RW. Practical avian therapeutics. Proc Basics Avian Med (Sydney), 1996:75-81. | Rupiper DJ, Ehrenberg M. Practical pigeon medicine. Proc Annu Conf Assoc Avian Vet, 1997:479-497. - Carpenter's Exotic Animal Formulary 6th ed, Table 5.2 (Antifungal Agents Used in Birds), pigeon row: '20-40 mg/kg PO q12h x 15-60 days784,791 | Pigeons'. THE APPENDED 'doi:10.1016/s0195-5616(91)50136-4' IS DELETED: resolved live against Crossref it returns a DIFFERENT publication, Rosskopf and Woerpel, Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 21(6):1265-1271, 1991.
· Samour, Avian Medicine, 3rd Ed. (raptor formulary appendix), p.660. Row as printed binds this dose to raptors on its own line: "Ketoconazole Nizoral (Janssen) Raptors IM 25 mg/kg bid for 7 d Used for treatment of candidiasis […]". Located by line-level extraction and then read on the page; the species binding is the row's own species column, not text proximity.
· Sharp NJ, Sullivan M. Use of ketoconazole in the treatment of canine nasal aspergillosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1989;194(6):782-786. doi:10.2460/javma.1989.194.06.782 — Verified against Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook, 10th Ed, p.755 (2026-08-01). — Plumb's 10th ed (held) printed p.725, Ketoconazole, Systemic monograph spanning p.725-728; page located 2026-08-05 from the book's own running heads, verified to name the drug in its body text. — SOURCE EDITION: Plumb's Veterinary Drug Handbook — ISBN 9781394172207, https://openlibrary.org/isbn/9781394172207